Signals from Within
We snort with anger or beam with happiness. Emotions determine our lives and influence our behavior. Emotional signals are therefore also a means of communication.
Scientific support: Prof. Dr. Dirk Wildgruber
Published: 18.12.2025
Difficulty: intermediate
- People are very good at recognizing the emotions of others based on Facial expressions and tone of voice. Basic emotions such as anger, sadness, or joy trigger similar facial expressions in all people.
- The emotions of others provide important social cues. For example, a sad face indicates a need for help, while a fearful expression warns of danger.
- The areas of the brain involved in recognizing emotions are also responsible for generating emotions.
emotions
Neuroscientists understand "emotions" to be complex response patterns that include experiential, physiological, and behavioral components. They arise in response to personally relevant or significant events and generate a willingness to act, through which the individual attempts to deal with the situation. Emotions typically occur with subjective experience (feeling), but differ from pure feeling in that they involve conscious or implicit engagement with the environment. Emotions arise in the limbic system, among other places, which is a phylogenetically ancient part of the brain. Psychologist Paul Ekman has defined six cross-cultural basic emotions that are reflected in characteristic facial expressions: joy, anger, fear, surprise, sadness, and disgust.
Facial expressions
Five muscle groups control the visible movements on the surface of our faces – and this applies to everyone in the world. Neuroscientists emphasize universal, evolutionarily anchored reactions as the reason for this. For this reason, the basic emotions of fear, anger, disgust, sadness, surprise, and joy leave similar traces on the face everywhere, which we can usually identify reliably even in strangers.
Basic emotions
Some theories assume that all emotions can be broken down into a few basic emotions. These are also referred to as primary emotions. According to Ekman, these classically include fear, anger, joy, sadness, disgust, and surprise. Primary emotions arise very quickly in response to an event and sometimes subside just as quickly. Over time, they can transition into secondary emotions (e.g., shame, guilt, or pride).
We cry with rage or are moved to tears. But what is the purpose of emotional tears? Scientists believe that crying serves as an unmistakable signal to show our fellow human beings that we are unhappy or helpless – and may need support.
In fact, researchers have shown that test subjects are less able to recognize the emotional state of people in photos when their tears have been “retouched” away. When women cry out of grief, they also send invisible chemical signals. According to a study by Israeli scientists, the imperceptible smell of tears of grief causes testosterone levels in men to drop and also reduces sexual arousal.
The cliché that women are more emotional than men has also been scientifically confirmed. They cry up to 64 times a year, while men cry a maximum of 17 times in the same period. However, the difference only develops in adolescence: women not only cry more often, but also longer and for different reasons than men, for example when faced with conflict. Researchers therefore suspect that the type and frequency of crying in adults could also be culturally determined.
Many philosophers have defined humans by their capacity for reason. Aristotle (384–322 BC) spoke of the zoon logicon, the rational animal. However, brain researchers and cognitive psychologists today take a different view from the great Greek thinker: the power that significantly determines us is not reason; it is emotions.
We are under their influence around the clock, day in and day out. Permanently generated by the brain as reactions to the constant stream of information, emotions guide our thoughts and actions. Since only a small part of them is experienced as conscious feelings, we often do not recognize what is driving us at any given moment. And often others recognize our current emotional state better than we do ourselves. Because emotions play such a fundamental role in people's lives, humans have developed a very fine sense of what others are feeling and how they feel about it.
emotions
Neuroscientists understand "emotions" to be complex response patterns that include experiential, physiological, and behavioral components. They arise in response to personally relevant or significant events and generate a willingness to act, through which the individual attempts to deal with the situation. Emotions typically occur with subjective experience (feeling), but differ from pure feeling in that they involve conscious or implicit engagement with the environment. Emotions arise in the limbic system, among other places, which is a phylogenetically ancient part of the brain. Psychologist Paul Ekman has defined six cross-cultural basic emotions that are reflected in characteristic facial expressions: joy, anger, fear, surprise, sadness, and disgust.
Expressive facial expressions
These facial expressions, which are characteristic of basic emotions, are intuitively understood all over the world. Incidentally, this also applies to tone of voice: whether someone is angry or in a good mood, whether they are threatening or trying to charm us, we can recognize this even in foreign languages – simply by the tone of voice.
What's more, Facial expressions and voice can only be influenced to a limited extent by willpower and are therefore difficult to disguise. But why do our emotions come across so clearly and are so easy to read? Because the obvious expression of emotions has important social functions for people living together in groups. For example, a sad or even crying face tells others that you are feeling bad and may need comfort and support (see box “Why do we cry?”).
An angry face warns of possible imminent aggression and urges others to stay out of the way. And anyone who sees an obviously fearful person is on their guard themselves because this indicates an imminent danger.
emotions
Neuroscientists understand "emotions" to be complex response patterns that include experiential, physiological, and behavioral components. They arise in response to personally relevant or significant events and generate a willingness to act, through which the individual attempts to deal with the situation. Emotions typically occur with subjective experience (feeling), but differ from pure feeling in that they involve conscious or implicit engagement with the environment. Emotions arise in the limbic system, among other places, which is a phylogenetically ancient part of the brain. Psychologist Paul Ekman has defined six cross-cultural basic emotions that are reflected in characteristic facial expressions: joy, anger, fear, surprise, sadness, and disgust.
Basic emotions
Some theories assume that all emotions can be broken down into a few basic emotions. These are also referred to as primary emotions. According to Ekman, these classically include fear, anger, joy, sadness, disgust, and surprise. Primary emotions arise very quickly in response to an event and sometimes subside just as quickly. Over time, they can transition into secondary emotions (e.g., shame, guilt, or pride).
Facial expressions
Five muscle groups control the visible movements on the surface of our faces – and this applies to everyone in the world. Neuroscientists emphasize universal, evolutionarily anchored reactions as the reason for this. For this reason, the basic emotions of fear, anger, disgust, sadness, surprise, and joy leave similar traces on the face everywhere, which we can usually identify reliably even in strangers.
Emotion recognition in the brain
Recognizing the emotions of others happens automatically and at lightning speed. We pay particular attention to the mouth and eyes of the person we are looking at – two areas that are most expressive in Facial expressions When processing this visual information, areas of the brain are active that also play a role in the emergence of emotions. These include parts of the cerebral cortex, the Limbic system with the amygdala, and the anterior cingulate cortex, where the so-called spindle cells are particularly active in emotion recognition.
But we don't just read other people's feelings, we also feel them. Mirror neurons in the motor cortex, for example, fire not only when we smile ourselves, but also when we see others smiling. This may be the reason why many emotions are contagious and transfer to others.
emotions
Neuroscientists understand "emotions" to be complex response patterns that include experiential, physiological, and behavioral components. They arise in response to personally relevant or significant events and generate a willingness to act, through which the individual attempts to deal with the situation. Emotions typically occur with subjective experience (feeling), but differ from pure feeling in that they involve conscious or implicit engagement with the environment. Emotions arise in the limbic system, among other places, which is a phylogenetically ancient part of the brain. Psychologist Paul Ekman has defined six cross-cultural basic emotions that are reflected in characteristic facial expressions: joy, anger, fear, surprise, sadness, and disgust.
attention
Attention
Attention serves as a tool for consciously perceiving internal and external stimuli. We achieve this by focusing our mental resources on a limited number of stimuli or pieces of information. While some stimuli automatically attract our attention, we can select others in a controlled manner. The brain also unconsciously processes stimuli that are not currently the focus of our attention.
Facial expressions
Five muscle groups control the visible movements on the surface of our faces – and this applies to everyone in the world. Neuroscientists emphasize universal, evolutionarily anchored reactions as the reason for this. For this reason, the basic emotions of fear, anger, disgust, sadness, surprise, and joy leave similar traces on the face everywhere, which we can usually identify reliably even in strangers.
Limbic system
The limbic system is a functional unit in the brain. It consists of interconnected structures, primarily in the cerebrum and diencephalon. The structures assigned to the system vary depending on the source, but the most important components are the hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus, septum, and mammillary bodies. The limbic system is involved in autonomic and visceral processes as well as in mechanisms of emotion, memory, and learning. Some authors mistakenly reduce the limbic system to the emotional world by referring to it as the "emotional brain."
Mirror neurons
Nerve cells in the brains of primates that fire just as strongly when their owners observe an action as when they perform it themselves. Italian researchers discovered these special neurons in the early 1990s while experimenting with macaques. Mirror neurons were later also detected in the human brain. Among other places, they occur in Broca's area, which is responsible for language processing. Mirror neurons could provide an explanation for why we are able to understand the feelings and intentions of others. The discussion on this topic is still ongoing.
A difficult field of research
However, emotions are not an easy area to study in neurobiological research. Because feelings are so fleeting and subjective, they are difficult to measure and evaluate. For this reason, many studies make a strict distinction between emotional experience, which test subjects can only describe through self-assessment, and the expression of emotions, which can also be seen and evaluated by observers. Animal studies are also problematic in the field of affective neuroscience, as animals are known to be unable to provide information about their feelings.
However, some insights have been gained from patients with brain lesions, such as those with deficits in emotion recognition. For example, if the Amygdala is damaged, those affected are less able to recognize fear in others. Damage to the Insula leads to limitations in recognizing anger. But even people without such defined brain damage sometimes have problems interpreting the feelings of others. Autistic people, for example, have difficulty assigning emotions to faces. Such symptoms also occur in schizophrenia, dementia, or stroke. The result is sometimes serious limitations in social interaction. This makes it clear how much the ability to recognize and empathize with the feelings of our fellow human beings influences our daily interactions with one another.
emotions
Neuroscientists understand "emotions" to be complex response patterns that include experiential, physiological, and behavioral components. They arise in response to personally relevant or significant events and generate a willingness to act, through which the individual attempts to deal with the situation. Emotions typically occur with subjective experience (feeling), but differ from pure feeling in that they involve conscious or implicit engagement with the environment. Emotions arise in the limbic system, among other places, which is a phylogenetically ancient part of the brain. Psychologist Paul Ekman has defined six cross-cultural basic emotions that are reflected in characteristic facial expressions: joy, anger, fear, surprise, sadness, and disgust.
Amygdala
corpus amygdaloideum
An important core area in the temporal lobe that is associated with emotions: it evaluates the emotional content of a situation and reacts particularly to threats. In this context, it is also activated by pain stimuli and plays an important role in the emotional evaluation of sensory stimuli. Inaddition, it is involved in linking emotions with memories, emotional learning ability, and social behavior. The amygdala is part of the limbic system.
Insula
lobus insularis
The insula is a recessed part of the cortex (cerebral cortex) that is covered by the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes. This overlay is called the opercula (lid). The insula influences the motor and sensory functions of the intestines and is considered to be the link between cognitive and emotional elements in pain processing. It is also involved in processes such as taste and physical self-awareness.
stroke
Cerebral apoplexy
In a stroke, the brain or parts of it are no longer supplied with sufficient blood, which impairs the supply of oxygen and glucose. The most common cause is a blockage in an artery (ischemic stroke), less commonly a hemorrhage (hemorrhagic stroke). Typical symptoms include sudden visual disturbances, dizziness, paralysis, speech or sensory disturbances. Long-term consequences can include various sensory, motor, and cognitive impairments.
First published on July 20, 2011
Last updated on December 18, 2025
