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1. Glossary

cranial

A positional term – cranial means "towards the head." In relation to the nervous system, it refers to a direction along the neural axis, i.e., forward. In animals (without upright gait), the designation is simpler, as it always means forward. Due to the upright gait of humans, the brain bends in relation to the spinal cord, where cranial also means "upward."

1. Glossary

rostral

A positional term – rostral means "towards the beak." In relation to the nervous system, it refers to a direction along the neural axis towards the front, towards the face. In animals (without upright gait), the designation is simpler, as it always means located toward the front. Due to the upright gait of humans, the brain bends in relation to the spinal cord, making rostral at the level of the back become "up."

1. Glossary

caudal

A positional term – caudal means "towards the tail." In relation to the nervous system, it refers to a direction along the neural axis, i.e., towards the rear. In animals (that do not walk upright), the term always means: located at the end of the spine. Due to the upright gait of humans, the brain bends in relation to the spinal cord, which means that caudal also means downward.

1. Basics
2. Anatomy

The Mesencephalon

Important neurotransmitters, an astonishing array of colors, and a water pipe – that's the midbrain.

20.09.2025

1. Glossary

Pyramidal pathway

The pyramidal pathway is a system of axons (long fiber-like extensions of nerve cells) that run from the motor cortex to the spinal cord. 80 percent of all fibers cross to the opposite side in the medulla oblongata. In the medulla, it runs past the pyramids, from which it gets its name. It is involved in fine and voluntary motor skills.

1. Glossary

Dura mater

The outermost of the three membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. Consists of connective tissue.

1. Glossary

Periaqueductal gray

A core area in the brain stem that is involved in defensive behavior and fear and flight reflexes via close connections to the limbic system. It also plays an important role in pain suppression by regulating signals from the spinal cord to the brain. It is considered an endogenous pain control system and is an important target for medication.

1. Glossary

dorsal

The positional term dorsal means "towards the back." In relation to the nervous system, it refers to a direction perpendicular to the neural axis, i.e., upwards towards the head or backwards.In animals that do not walk upright, the term is simpler, as it always means toward the back. Due to the upright posture of humans, the brain bends in relation to the spinal cord, making dorsal mean "upward."

1. Glossary

Pons

Area in the brain stem between the medulla oblongata and the mesencephalon. It acts as a switching station for many nerve pathways between the brain and spinal cord and contains numerous nuclei, including cranial nerves and those involved in controlling motor function in cooperation with the cerebellum.

1. Glossary

ventral

A positional term – ventral means "towards the abdomen." In relation to the nervous system, it refers to a direction perpendicular to the neural axis, i.e., downwards or forwards. In animals (that do not walk upright), the term is simpler, as it always means toward the abdomen. Due to the upright posture of humans, the brain bends in relation to the spinal cord, making ventral mean "forward."